Table of Contents
Part 1- 1. Japan-US History
- 2. Colonialism in Hawaii, Samoa, and beyond
- I. Introduction
- II. Unified Kingdom of Hawaii
- III. The Beginning of the End
- IV. A Brief Reprieve
- V. King Kalakaua: A New Hope
- VI. The Sun Sets on Hawaii
Part 2
Part 3
- 3. Peak of US Colonial Hegemony: Spanish-American War to WWII
- I. Spanish-American War Overview
- II. Mahárlika: Haring Bayang Katagalugan
- III. American Resistance to the "White Man's Burden"
- IV. Philippine-American War: Continued Resistance to Colonial Hegemony
- V. US Colonization: Philippine Insular Government and Commonwealth
- VI. Anti-Colonial Resistance in Samoa
- VII. Hawaii: Post-Annexation
- Summary and Conclusion of Chapters 1-3
VII. Twilight
Having Kalākaua's full confidence and previously entrusted to rule Hawaii during Kalākaua's global diplomatic voyage, Liliʻuokalani ascended the throne as the last monarch of Hawaii.
In 1893, Queen Liliʻuokalani announced plans for a new constitution, which would have restored the monarch's power to levels not seen since Kamehameha V. In response, a group of mostly Euro-American business leaders staged a coup d'état against the kingdom and sought annexation by the United States. Due to hesitation by the US Congress and President, Hawaii was turned into an "independent" republic under control of Sanford Dole, until the political climate for annexation became ripe in 1898.
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After the imposition of the Bayonet Constitution in 1887, which disenfranchised many Hawaiian voters but allowed un-naturalized foreigners to vote, new pro-Western political parties and anti-monarchical attitudes quickly gained influence in Hawaii.
Frustrated that the Queen did immediately begin to take steps to reverse the stranglehold of Westerners on Hawaii's government, Wilcox and other discontents (including John Bush) planned another rebellion. This time, it was decided to overthrow the monarchy altogether and form a (non-Western) republic. Their reasoning was that if they managed to take control and give voting rights to all Hawaiians, native Hawaiians would be able to form a large enough electoral bloc to challenge Westerners to a greater extent than the largely-disempowered monarchy had been doing. The government caught wind of this plan, and it was called off, but it did not escape the attention of Westerners who would soon carry out their own coup.
A few months later, the Hawaiian legislature convened for the first and last time under the Queen's rule. Tensions between Westerners and Hawaiians, and monarchist and anti-monarchist Hawaiians, were heavy and the legislature, despite convening for a record length of 171 days, achieved little than convincing everyone that the 1887 Constitution had made the government dysfunctional. Hawaiians realized the need to draft a new, effective, constitution, and pro-annexation Westerners realized the disarray gave them the opportunity they had been waiting for all these decades.
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Although Joseph Nāwahī was initially opposed to Kalākaua (so much so that the King personally campaigned on behalf of his political opponent in the congressional election of 1886), Nāwahī rallied behind the King after the Bayonet Constitution and remained steadfast in support of the monarchy as republican ideas and Western encroachment increasingly threatened the independence of Hawaii.
Nāwahī was amongst the team who drafted the proposed 1893 Constitution. Westerners in Hawaii so greatly feared this constitution would be a stepping stone back to true (i.e. absolute) monarchy—and hence end to the Western influence in Hawaii which relied on the influence of their agents in the Hawaiian Congress and government positions unchecked by the monarch—that they began a coup d'état three days after the Queen introduced the Constitution to her ministers.
Fearing the political instability which would ensue from both Westerners in Hawaii and native Hawaiians who belonged to political factions at odds with the Queen, the Queen's ministers refused to ratify the new Constitution and informed members of the opposition party. Just as Western colonialists had previously sparked civil wars in Samoa to facilitate annexation, the incipient "revolution" over the new Constitution provided them with the cover they were looking for.
"The Hawaiian pear is now fully ripe, and this is the golden hour for the United States to pluck it." –John L. Stevens, US minister to Hawaii who conspired with coup leaders.
"I think there are only three places that are of value enough to be taken ... One is Hawaii and the others are Cuba and Porto Rico. Cuba and Porto Rico are not now imminent and will not be for a generation. Hawaii may come up for decision at an unexpected hour and I hope we shall be prepared to decide it in the affirmative." –James G. Blaine, US Secretary of State and associate of John Stevens.
Immediately after learning about the proposed Constitution, on January 14, Stevens met with Lorrin Thurston and Sanford Dole (two of the authors of the Bayonet Constitution) to develop a plan to overthrow the Hawaiian government. A secret society of Western elites called the Committee of Safety would once again use the Honolulu Rifles to capture strategic locations and exert pressure on the monarch, while US Marines, summoned by Stevens, would prevent the Hawaiian forces from attempting to put down the coup.
Learning of the planned coup on January 16, Hawaiian Marshal Charles B. Wilson tried to issue arrest warrants for the Committee members and put Hawaii under martial law, but government officials were slow to act on these recommendations, as they feared escalating the situation would lead to catastrophe. On the same day, US Marines landed in Hawaii under the pretense of protecting US citizens and property which could have been damaged by the "revolution". Garrisoning around key positions, US forces did not capture any buildings, but served as visible deterrent to intimidate Hawaiians from attempting to stop the coup by armed force.
On January 17, the coup went into full operation after a policeman was shot while attempting to stop an arms shipment to the Honolulu Rifles. The Rifles garrisoned across the street from the Palace, knowing that the US forces would come to their aid and spark a war if Hawaiian forces attempted to engage them. The Queen surrendered without any bloodshed, hoping that the US would restore her once the US government realized some of its citizens had just illegally and immorally overthrown the government of a sovereign nation.
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Not at all shy about their goals, Committee Chairman Henry E. Cooper read this declaration on the steps of the palace before the day's end:
"First - The Hawaiian monarchial system of government is hereby abrogated.
Second - A Provisional Government for the control and management of public affairs and the protection of public peace is hereby established, to exist until terms of union with the United States of America have been negotiated and agreed upon."
The same day, the US recognized Sanford Dole as the new leader of Hawaii, and the US flag was hoisted above the Palace. On January 19, Dole hurriedly sent a delegation to the US government asking for annexation, and the Queen sent her own delegation to protest the coup and annexation.
"I, Liliuokalani, by the grace of God and under the constitution of the Hawaiian kingdom Queen, do hereby solemnly protest against any and all acts done against myself and the constitutional government of the Hawaiian kingdom by certain persons claiming to have established a Provisional Government of and for this kingdom.
That I yield to the superior force of the United States of America, whose Minister Plenipotentiary, His Excellency John L. Stevens, has caused United States troops to be landed at Honolulu, and declared that he would support the said Provisional Government.
Now, to avoid any collision of armed forces, and perhaps the loss of life I do, under this protest and impelled by said forces, yield my authority until such time as the Government of the United States shall, upon the facts being presented to it, undo the action of its representative, and reinstate me in the authority which I claim as the constitutional sovereign of the Hawaiian Islands." –Queen Liliʻuokalani, letter to Dole and provisional government, January 17, 1893.
"Upon receiving incontestable proofs that His Excellency the Minister Plenipotentiary of the United States had caused troops to be landed for that purpose, I submitted to force, believing that he would not have acted in that manner unless by authority of the government which he represents.
This action on my part was prompted by three reasons, the futility of a conflict with the United States, the desire to avoid violence and bloodshed and the destruction of life and property, and the certainty which I feel that you and your government will right whatever wrongs may have been inflicted upon us in the premises. In due time a statement of the true facts relating to this matter will be laid before you, and I live in the hope that you will judge uprightly and justly between myself and my enemies.
This appeal is not made for myself personally, but for my people, who have hitherto always enjoyed the friendship and protection of the United States.
My opponents have taken the only vessel which could be obtained here for the purpose; and hearing of their intention to send a delegation of their number to present their side of the conflict before you, I requested the favor of sending by the same vessel an envoy to you to lay before you my statement as the facts appear to myself and my loyal subjects.
This request has been refused; and I now ask you, in justice to myself and to my people, that no steps be taken by the Government of the United States until my cause can be heard by you." –Queen Liliʻuokalani, letter to President Harrison.
(The pro-annexation Harrison, whose term in office was close to an end, immediately sent the treaty of annexation to Congress on February 16, before examining the Queen's case).
The Queen's envoy arrived in time to delay the Congressional debate on the treaty. After taking office on March 4, President Cleveland's first act was to withdraw the treaty and form a commission to investigate the matters in Hawaii. He was not so keen to annex Hawaii after such a brazen and dishonorable debacle.
"I suppose that right and justice should determine the path to be followed in treating this subject. If national honesty is to be disregarded and a desire for territorial extension, or dissatisfaction with a form of government not our own, ought to regulate our conduct, I have entirely misapprehended the mission and character of our Government and the behavior which the conscience of our people demands of their public servants.
...I believe that a candid and thorough examination of the facts will force the conviction that the provisional government owes its existence to an armed invasion by the United States. Fair-minded people with the evidence before them will hardly claim that the Hawaiian Government was overthrown by the people of the islands or that the provisional government had ever existed with their consent. I do not understand that any member of this government claims that the people would uphold it by their suffrages if they were allowed to vote on the question.
...Believing, therefore, that the United States could not, under the circumstances disclosed, annex the islands without justly incurring the imputation of acquiring them by unjustifiable methods, I shall not again submit the treaty of annexation to the Senate for its consideration...
...By an act of war, committed with the participation of a diplomatic representative of the United States and without authority of Congress, the Government of a feeble but friendly and confiding people has been overthrown. A substantial wrong has thus been done which a due regard for our national character as well as the rights of the injured people requires we should endeavor to repair." –President Cleveland's message about Hawaii. December 18, 1893.
"... the military demonstration upon the soil of Honolulu was of itself an act of war; unless made either with the consent of the government of Hawaii or for the bona fide purpose of protecting the imperiled lives and property of citizens of the United States. But there is no pretense of any such consent on the part of the government of the queen ... the existing government, instead of requesting the presence of an armed force, protested against it. There is as little basis for the pretense that forces were landed for the security of American life and property. If so, they would have been stationed in the vicinity of such property and so as to protect it, instead of at a distance and so as to command the Hawaiian Government Building and palace ... When these armed men were landed, the city of Honolulu was in its customary orderly and peaceful condition ..." –Grover Cleveland, State of the Union Address. December 3, 1894.
Cleveland appointed James Henderson Blount to lead a House of Representatives committee to investigate the details surrounding the coup in Hawaii. Blount (although anti-annexation largely due to White Supremacist beliefs), accurately reported that the US, through John Stevens, was complicit in the overthrow of the Hawaiian government.
Albert Willis was appointed as US Minister to Hawaii, and began negotiations to end the Provisional Government of Hawaii and restore Queen Liliʻuokalani to the throne. However, negotiations between the Queen, Dole, and US government went nowhere, and Cleveland deferred to the Senate for advice on how the US should proceed.
The US Senate formed their own investigation and issued their own report. Led by former Confederate General and KKK member John Tyler Morgan (who was pro-annexation since Hawaii would be a conveniently distant place to deport "blacks", among other reasons), the Morgan report trivialized the coup as a mere "internal affair" of Hawaii. Disappointingly, one year after taking office, Cleveland then ceased support for the Hawaiian monarchy and recognized the Hawaiian Republic as the official government.
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VIII. Resistance
Immediately after the coup, residents on Maui island began protesting the new government. Maui resident and politician William Pūnohu White, who also helped draft the proposed Constitution, quickly arrived back in Maui to help organize royalist resistance.
White, Nāwahī, and countless others loyal to the Queen joined the Hui Aloha ʻĀina o Na Kane (Hawaiian Patriotic League for Men), an organization which served as the primary political opposition to Dole's government and proposals of annexation.
Notably, the Hui Aloha ʻĀina organized a petition drive in 1897, collecting over 21,000 signatures in a week in opposition to annexation. (Some estimates place the total number of signatories as comprising of over 95% of adult ethnic Hawaiians at the time.) This petition was presented to the US Congress, and due to its significance, annexation was delayed by...only one year. A similar petition, collecting over 17,000 signatures calling for restoration of the monarchy, is frequently cited as additional proof of just how unpopular Dole's Republic of Hawaii was.
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Knowing that petitions alone would do no good, others turned to different means to throw off Western rule. In late 1894, royalists had formed plans to overthrow the Dole government by force.
Having some experience with rebellions, Wilcox accepted an offer to lead them—despite the fact that his support of the monarchy only pragmatic by this point. In January 1895, the rebellion kicked off with the Battle of Diamond Head, where the royalists managed to secure a victory. However, the element of surprise was now gone, and the highly-trained Republic forces were mobilized to put down the rebels. In the following battles, faced with the difficulty of deserters and enemy artillery, the royalists were eventually defeated by the Republic forces.
After surrendering, Wilcox and the other leaders were sentenced to death for treason. In the ensuing days, the Republic found weapons stockpiled at Queen Liliʻuokalani's residence, and subsequently had her arrested and tried for misprision of treason. After being found guilty, she was placed under house arrest.
Although Dole did not necessarily want to make martyrs of those rebellion leaders sentenced to death, he used this opportunity to force Liliʻuokalani to formally abdicate in exchange for commuting the death sentences. She reluctantly agreed to these terms, but one can't help but imagine the US never would have restored her regardless.
"For myself, I would have chosen death rather than to have signed it; but it was represented to me that by my signing this paper all the persons who had been arrested, all my people now in trouble by reason of their love and loyalty towards me, would be immediately released. Think of my position, — sick, a lone woman in prison, scarcely knowing who was my friend, or who listened to my words only to betray me, without legal advice or friendly counsel, and the stream of blood ready to flow unless it was stayed by my pen." –Liliʻuokalani
The sentences of those involved were dramatically lessened, and Wilcox was eventually pardoned. Liliʻuokalani herself was pardoned by Dole in 1896 and granted liberty to travel. For the next year she spent time in the US and continued to protest against annexation. After the ultimately unsuccessful attempts to stop annexation, the Queen faced another challenge—the annexation caused all Crown Lands of Hawaii to be ceded to the Hawaiian territorial government. After over a decade of fighting the US on this issue, she brought an unsuccessful lawsuit against the US government in 1909.
Being granted a meager pension in 1911, Queen Liliʻuokalani died in Washington Place in Honolulu in 1917.
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Among those protesting annexation was Crown Princess Kaʻiulani, who traveled to the US and personally spoke with President Cleveland in an attempt to put a halt to talk of annexation and restore the government in Hawaii.
In 1889, at age 13, at the behest of Thurston, Kaʻiulani was sent overseas to England to get a first class Western education and to cut the young heir to the throne off from the political events unfolding in Hawaii.
"Four years ago, at the request of Mr. Thurston, then a Hawaiian Cabinet Minister, I was sent away to England to be educated privately and fitted to the position which by the constitution of Hawaii I was to inherit. For all these years, I have patiently and in exile striven to fit myself for my return this year to my native country. I am now told that Mr. Thurston will be in Washington asking you to take away my flag and my throne. No one tells me even this officially. Have I done anything wrong that this wrong should be done to me and my people? I am coming to Washington to plead for my throne, my nation and my flag. Will not the great American people hear me?" –Kaʻiulani, 1893
After being informed of the news of the coup, she immediately traveled to the US in order to speak to the press and make her case. While the US public expected to be confronted with the inarticulate rantings of a barbaric "third worlder", reports of Kaʻiulani's grace managed to impress even the President. Being invited to the White House, Kaʻiulani had a significant impression on President Cleveland and his wife, and was no small influence in convincing Cleveland to send James Blount to investigate matters in Hawaii.
"I want to do all I can for my people, and be an honest, true leader to them. I simply want to do my duty to beloved Hawaii." –Kaʻiulani
"It was bad enough to lose the throne, but infinitely worse to have the flag go down..." –Kaʻiulani
Her pleas were not enough. In 1899, months after Hawaii's annexation, Princess Kaʻiulani died of illness and a broken heart. She was only 23.
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IX. The Pineapple Republic
After it became apparent that annexation would not proceed immediately, the Committee of Safety transitioned the Provisional Government into the Republic of Hawaii in 1894, with Dole as its president. Although technically a republic, it in essence remained an oligarchy controlled by Dole and his co-conspirators. In the 1894 and 1897 elections, the 'American Union Party' won all seats in the new legislature, as Hawaiians who refused to recognize the Republic boycotted the vote and refused to swear an oath of loyalty to the Republic, which was necessary to run for office.
William McKinley became President of the US on March 4, 1897, reopening the possibility of annexation. On June 16, 1897, McKinley sent a treaty of annexation to the Senate. However, the terms of annexation remained controversial, and it was unclear whether there was enough support to immediately push the treaty through. In September 1897, John Tyler Morgan and a group of pro-annexation politicians traveled to Hawaii, in order to drum up renewed interest in annexation.
In one final act of protest, thousands of Hawaiians traveled to Palace Square in Honolulu. A series of Hawaiian leaders, including J. Kalua Kaho`okano, F. J. Testa, and James Keauiluna Kaulia (President of Hui Aloha ʻĀina), gave fiery speeches which stated in no ambiguous terms just how opposed Hawaiians were to annexation and the Republic.
"The destiny of Hawaii, situated in the mid-Pacific as she is, should be that of an independent nation and so she would be were it not for the policy of greed which pervades the American Legislators and the spirit of cowardice which is in the breasts of those who first consummated the theft of Hawaiian prestige.
Can the United States in consistency with past principles annex these islands until she has made herself right before the world by undoing everything that this Minister (Stevens) has done?
Ask for the voice of Hawaii on this subject - Mr. Senator, and you will hear it with no uncertain tones ring out from Niihau to Hawaii - 'Independence now and forever.'" –James Keauiluna Kaulia
"That your memorialists humbly but fervently protest against the consummation of this invasion of their political rights; and they earnestly appeal to the President, the Congress and the People of the United States, to refrain from further participating in the wrong so proposed; and they invoke in support of this memorial the spirit of that immortal Instrument, the Declaration of American Independence; and especially the truth therein expressed, that Governments derive their just powers from the consent of the governed, ---and here repeat, that the consent of the people of the Hawaiian Islands to the forms of Government imposed by the so-called Republic of Hawaii, and to said proposed Treaty of Annexation, has never been asked by and is not accorded, either to said Government or to said project of Annexation." –F. J. Testa, reading "Memorial to the President, the Congress and the People of the United States of America".
On November 20, 1897, a Hawaiian delegation traveled to Washington to present the anti-annexation petition circulated by Hui Aloha ʻĀina. This action managed to derail any momentum Morgan had hoped to achieve by his visit to Hawaii, but Morgan would have the last laugh.
The Spanish-American War erupted in April 1898, and ended in August of that year. With the US eyeing to take the Philippines, Guam, Puerto Rico, and Cuba from Spain, military strategists, territorial expansionists, and business elites were able to convince lawmakers that annexation of yet another Pacific territory—Hawaii—was the natural course of action.
"The great trouble was that the queen did not wish to resign constitutionally, but sided with that element whose cry had for years, 'Hawaii for the Hawaiians.' The Americans and Europeans, who have by far 'The Largest Interests' there, are not willing to let the natives spend the money which they have labored so hard to make." –Lorrin Thurston, February 2, 1893.
(Western business interests also won out in Latin America, where coups were started in the following decades to empower regimes profitable to US businesses. Most famously, this is where the term "Banana Republic" originates. Previously, in the 1850s, a US citizen named William Walker overthrew the Nicaraguan government, and Nicaragua may have suffered the same fate as Hawaii if not for a Central American military alliance which overthrew Walker.)
As a result of having a year of stalled discussions, the annexation treaty was reformulated into an easier-to-pass bill. After a month of deliberation in Congress, McKinley signed the Newlands Resolution on July 7, 1898, annexing Hawaii.
"Whereas, the Government of the Republic of Hawaii having, in due form, signified its consent, in the manner provided by its constitution, to cede absolutely and without reserve to the United States of America, all rights of sovereignty of whatsoever kind in and over the Hawaiian Islands and their dependencies, and also to cede and transfer to the United States..." –Newlands Resolution
Although the Hui Aloha ʻĀina's petitions and final speeches managed to achieve little practical effect in the long run, they have been recorded forever in history as a testament to the tyranny of the Republic of Hawaii and the supremely dishonorable circumstances regarding its annexation.
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X. Samoa
Despite being formally united with Hawaii by King Kalākaua in 1887, Samoa was divided into a German and US sphere of influence in December 1899, and annexed by the US in February 1900. Western Samoa (now known simply as the country of Samoa) was the first Pacific island nation to achieve independence, in 1962. Due to the intertwined histories of Hawaii and Samoa, a brief history of Samoa up to annexation will be included in this section.
In 1841, the US Exploring Expedition traveled through Samoa and nearby island chains. Members of the US government would not show renewed interest in Samoa until the 1870s, when it acquired use of Pago Pago harbor in 1878. In the mean time, both the German and British Empires had become increasingly interested in acquiring Samoa. Throughout the 1860s, the commercial interests of the US, UK, and Germany began to grow.
Like Hawaii in its early days, the islands of Samoa had divided loyalties. By the time of Western intervention, there were at least five different factions who held different dynastic titles, giving them claim for high political office. Wars were frequent throughout Samoan history, but the situation became very unstable after fights broke out over who would succeed King Moli as the head of the dominant Malietoa dynasty. Taking advantage of the chaos, a full-scale civil war where other dynasties fought for kingship broke out. Western powers interested in annexing Samoa spared no opportunity to exacerbate these divisions in Samoan society.
By 1869, two opposing factions formed around Talavou (King Moli's half-brother) and Laupepa (King Moli's son). British and US forces brokered a peace treaty in 1873 recognizing Laupepa as King. In 1875, US citizen Albert Barnes Steinberger managed to get himself appointed as Prime Minister of Samoa, where he drafted a constitution limiting the power of the monarch and empowering himself and a parliament. As he was acting beyond any powers authorized to him by the US government and had close commercial ties with Germany, the US managed to have him deported out of Samoa in February 1876.
In 1879, a German military expedition defeated an alliance of chiefs who opposed Talavou, and managed to change their loyalty. A new government order was formed, with Talavou as King, Laupepa as Vice-King, and Iosefo of the Mata'afa dynasty as Premier. Order broke down when Talavou died in 1880, although Laupepa nominally became King. The Germans subsequently backed the Tamasese dynasty from 1881 until annexation.
By 1883 the Germans were attempting to build up the pressure in order to depose Laupepa—blaming him for all crimes committed against German property. Recognizing the absurdity of the situation, Tamasese Titimaea and Laupepa actually joined forces for a time to oppose the Western intruders, who were tossing Samoa around like a ragdoll! By 1885 Germans forced Titimaea to cut his formal ties with Laupepa.
In February 1887, a Hawaiian delegation arrived inviting Samoa to the Pacific Alliance. Germany prevented members of the Tamasese and Mata'afa dynasties from signing the treaty, as Samoans were generally receptive to Hawaii—it was even rumored that Titimaea was considering relocating to Hawaii in order to escape German pressure. Had Samoans of all dynasties been given the opportunity to put aside their differences and ally with Hawaii, not only would Western powers have to contend with a unified Samoa, but the combined strength of Hawaii and its rapidly modernizing military!
In August 1887 (months after signing the alliance with Hawaii) the Germans issued Laupepa with an asinine ultimatum. When their impossible demands were not met, the Germans landed troops on the island and Laupepa was captured and exiled. Germans installed Titimaea as the King and Eugen Brandeis as Premier, essentially consolidating their control over Western Samoa.
"To all Samoa. On account of my great love to my country and my great affection to all Samoa, this is the reason that I deliver up my body to the German Government. That Government may do as they wish to me. The reason of this is because I do not desire that the blood of Samoa shall be spilt for me again. But I do not know what is my offence which has caused their anger to me and to my country. ...Farewell! If we do not again see one another in this world, pray that we may be again together above." –Laupepa's farewell
Posturing themselves against Germany, the US and UK recognized Laupepa as the only lawful King of Samoa. Iosefo remained loyal to Laupepa and received material support from Britain. In September 1888 Iosefo attacked Titimaea's forces, and gained the upper hand. German, British, and American warships were closely observing their proxy war, and nearly came to blows themselves. But a powerful hurricane swept through Samoa in March 1889, destroying nearly all of the Western warships (which were too blinded by hubris to move to open sea, which was the only way to weather the storm), and led to a temporary cool-down of tensions between the Western powers.
Suffice to say, Western divide and conquer tactics worked splendidly to create chaos in Samoa, but the fact that there were three competing factions of Western powers delayed the nominal annexation of Samoa. Throughout the 1870s and 1880s, various leaders of Samoa frequently petitioned the US, UK, and Germany for protectorate status in order to ward off intrusion by the other parties, yet even with Samoa handed to them on a golden platter the colonial powers rejected these requests knowing they would be dragged into further conflict.
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In 1879, Samoa ceded its control over the town and harbor of Apia to a joint administration of UK, US, and German representatives. Just as Hawaii's renewal of the Reciprocity Treaty with the US would be its first formal step to annexation, so too would Samoa's cession of its harbor be the first step in its own downfall.
After the three Western powers were humiliated by losing their fleets in the March 1889 hurricane, the Treaty of Berlin was signed in April. The Treaty established a joint protectorate over Samoa, although Samoa nominally remained under native control. This treaty established a Supreme Court in Samoa, which was granted significant power, and whose Chief Justice was directly appointed by the three Western powers. The Germans brokered a peace amongst the Samoans, and Laupepa was returned from exile by a German ship in August 1889. Upon arrival, he was welcomed to back to the throne by Iosefo and the citizenry, and he allowed Iosefo to maintain considerable administrative power. Titimaea died in 1891, but this was not the end of dynastic squabbling. The Treaty of Berlin allowed for the King of Samoa to be elected, and Iosefo increasingly built his case to take control of the throne. In 1893 he rallied his forces and a new civil war almost began, but the Western powers intervened and exiled Iosefo. By early 1894 the Tamasese dynasty, now led by Lealofi I, attempted to overthrow Laupepa, but were defeated.
Laupepa died in 1898, and Iosefo returned from exile and was quickly nominated for King. After a contested election, the Chief Justice decided Laupepa's son Tanumafili I would be King. Hours later, a civil war erupted once more. By January 1899 Iosefo had gained the upper hand and was essentially in control of the Samoan government. Once again, the Western powers were on the brink of war over who would have the privilege of picking up the pieces. In March, British and US forces jointly attacked Mata'afan forces—the first time US and Britain had joined forces in a war.
In June 1899 the three Western powers once again brokered a peace, abolishing the office of King and transferring power to the delegates of the Western powers. Tired of unprofitable proxy wars and tensions boiling over between the Western powers every decade, it was decided to formally divide and annex Samoa. Britain renounced its claims over Samoa in exchange for receiving German colonies in the Solomon Islands and other compensation; Germany was granted the Samoan islands west of 171 degrees longitude, and the US the islands to the east. The Tripartite Convention resulted in a treaty which was signed in December 1899 and took effect in February 1900.
Western meddling in Samoa and the Pacific did not go by unnoticed. Most notably, writer Robert Louis Stevenson traveled throughout the Pacific beginning in 1888. On his journey, he befriended King Kalākaua and Princess Kaʻiulani while in Hawaii, and witnessed colonial devastation first hand as he passed through the Gilbert Islands, Tahiti, and New Zealand. In 1890, he made a home of Upolu Island in Samoa, where he would live until his death in 1894.
Notably, he published A Footnote to History: Eight Years of Trouble in Samoa, a strong criticism of Western meddling in Samoa, in 1892. Ultimately, however, Stevenson's pen strokes did nothing to protect the Pacific from the combined military might of Germany, the US, UK, and a number of other Western nations which continued to expand their colonial holdings in Oceania.
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Summary of Chapter 2
As Hawaii and Samoa have been part of the US for over 100 years, our histories are forever intertwined—even if Hawaii or Samoa should become independent in the future. Therefore, Hawaiian history is US history. As such, it is every American's duty to understand the history of Hawaii and Samoa and to redeem our nation by making up for past injustices. Discussion of justice for Hawaii and other US territories unjustly annexed deserves the same stage as justice for segregation and its racist legacy, justice for the ethnic cleansing of Native Americans, and justice for immigrants and refugees. Not only because of the magnitude of past events, but also because of Hawaii's strategic military position and the tensions it may raise in the future should 21st century Yellow Scare revivalists and Pacific Pivot advocates such as Steve Bannon continue to push the US closer to war with China.
Hawaii became a united nation under the reign of Kamehameha the Great by 1810. Before long, Western missionaries intent on destroying Hawaii's culture and Western businessmen seeking to exploit Hawaii's resources sunk their fingers into the islands. Having experienced racism in the antebellum US firsthand, Kamehameha IV and Kamehameha V began to de-Westernize Hawaiian society and put a temporary halt on any discussion of annexation by Western powers. With Kalākaua's reign in the 1870s and early 1880s, Hawaii had begun promoting the idea of a Pacific-wide alliance of non-Western states—inviting nations such as Japan, Tonga, and Samoa. Samoa accepted this invitation in 1887, and Westerners in Hawaii led a coup to drastically reduce the King's power and shattered any hope of continuing the Pacific Alliance.
Over the final decades of the 19th century, more and more Pacific nations would lose their independence. After an attempt to throw off Western dominance and once again give the monarch power, Queen Liliʻuokalani was overthrown by a coup led by Western business elites in Hawaii, who received the assistance of US military forces who intimidated the Hawaiian military into standing down. Although the coup leaders desired immediate annexation by the US, the hesitation of Congress and President Cleveland delayed annexation for five years. After a brief time as a Republic under control of the coup leaders, Hawaii was annexed by the US under the auspices of President McKinley in 1898. Samoa, which had for decades been plagued by civil wars stoked by Germany, US, and the UK, was partitioned between Germany and the US in 1899.
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